The article being reviewed in this essay, Essays

The article being evaluated in this paper, Essays The article being evaluated in this paper, Essay The article being evaluated in this paper, Essay The article being evaluated in this exposition, ‘Land Tenure Insecurity and Inequality in Nicaragua’ by Rikke J Broegaard, was written in September 2005 as an exploration paper for the Danish Institute for International Studies. It speaks to the duration of research work completed by Broegaard in this field. In fact, it was the able nation of his PhD investigate. Without a doubt, in my conclusion, the most intriguing feature of this review is to look at the improvement of the two strategies and considerations from Broegaard’s prior work. Along these lines in this paper, I will be taking a gander at an article carbon monoxide composed by Broegaard in 2002, and will be looking all the more carefully at how his work has created. To nicely reevaluate this article, it is important to the full comprehend the authentic setting of this exploration, and I will try to make this quickly toward the start of this paper. At the core of this issue is the land confiscated under the Sandinista specialists statute that proclaimed a bit of possessions relinquished if the owner was off for a half year or progressively, a quarter of a year if the owner went to the USA. The Sandinista specialists made land proprietorship for the hapless a priority through the 1980’s, and under their property Torahs, land was allocated 200,000 of the country’s most unfortunate family units by the way of 30ft ten 15ft mystery plans. Shockingly, the specialists neglected to gracefully rubrics to the land. At the point when the Sandinista specialists fell in the 1990 races, the full framework disintegrated. Past landholders, who had fled Nicaragua, came back to the state to repossess the belongingss which they had relinquished. The authoritiess who have followed the Sandinistas into power have entirely neglected to choose the land issues. In reality the situation seems to hold become more higgledy piggledy than ever. As has been expressed via Carol Hartman, â€Å"Nicaragua’s long haul stableness could rely upon choosing this prickly issue.† ( 1 ) This has non occurred. Fitting to Mark Everingham: â€Å"The triumph of Arnoldo Aleman and the expansive confederation in October 1996 raised positive thinking among 1000s of inquirers who were baffled with the Chamorro government’s eagerness to suit Sandinista objectives.† ( 2 ) This confidence was brief. New Torahs on things rule law brought in February 1998 fell into disorder when the Supreme Court found that the specialists agency had approved the arrival of belongingss effectively named to different gatherings. Petitioners had to indict their occurrences altogether through the courts. The situation was capability depicted by Mark Everingham in his article: â€Å"The unexpected intermingling of discretionary vote based system and neo-liberal standards push the foundation of possessions into an opposition between resurgent seized associations and beset Sandinist constituents.† ( 3 ) The situation has non really changed to this twenty-four hours. Over shadowing this entire method is the issue of the lawfulness of distributing rubrics without holding remunerated the previous landholders. Inside this authentic setting, Broegaard has composed this article to show and look at the detected land term of office condition of affairss of husbandmans inside various legitimate term of office condition of affairss. The overview was completed in three neighboring humble communities in south western Nicaragua. In whole 349 families were considered using a blend of quantitive and qualitive strategies. The gathering picked to break down were chosen to represent a far reaching gathering of land term of office condition of affairss and populating conditions. The overview included modest community pioneers, center pioneers, pioneers of the homestead laborers fraternity, neighborhood profound pioneers and the couple of prosperous and incredible landholders in the nation. I was stomach muscle initio uncomfortable with the idea of remembering these gatherings for the study, seeing a strength for the results of a little overview to go distorted. In any case, with the advantage of knowing the past, I understood that Broegaard was looking to comprehend this issue from all situations inside the network and he was thus option to incorporate these regions inside his review gathering. On the site of the ‘Danish Institute for International Studies’ , this article is presented in the undermentioned footings: â€Å"A enormous gathering of husbandmans in the case investigate nation see their term of office situation as being uncertain regardless of the way that they forces a legitimate rubric to their territory. The article contends that additionally going to must be paid to features, for example, disparities of riches and influence, inadequacy of authorization and lack of nonpartisanship on the part of the proper foundations when turn toing term of office security in an institutionally shaky puting, for example, that found in Nicaragua.† ( 4 ) Broegaard has looked to achieve these results by understanding the intricacy of the issues in topographic point, and has gotten off from the applied model of land term of office security which was grown mostly by financial specialists. Broegaard states that: â€Å"Over the decennaries a re-conceptualization has risen through the coordinating of discoveries from ( legitimate ) anthropologists and history.† ( 5 ) He goes on to territory that: â€Å"The re-conceptualization brings into the contention the idea that a lack of single land rubrics does non needfully expect that the land term of office is unreliable, and that solitary proper rubrics may non fundamentally reinforce term of office security.† ( 6 ) This re-conceptualization is talked about at incredible length by Broegaard inside this article and is extremely much at the core of the treatment nations and his choices. This new theoretical model has permitted him to recognize that â€Å"corruption, significant expenses of land rubrics and an extremely costly legitimate framework block solid and equivalent requirement of land rubrics, especially for hapless, minimal graduated table farmers.† ( 7 ) It has other than permits a complement to be heaps of riches and influence among family, and the improvement of the idea that rubrics can flexibly residency security to certain families yet non to other people. As a comment against what Broegaards depicts as econometric surveies, he expressed that â€Å"this point of convergence avoided the way that ; in numerous specific situations, title proprietorship is non needfully compared with holding a high level of term of office security.† ( 8 ) This re-conceptualization speaks to an abundant removal in emphasize from old articles by Broegaard, and in impossible to miss, an article co-written in 2002. The article entitled ‘Property Rights and Land Tenure Security in Nicaragua’ took a significantly more monetary situation of this relationship, something which is non amazing, sing the help natural structure. In this review, Broegaard utilized what he called captured improvement examinations. He expresses that: â€Å"Regression investigations is utilized to examine channels through which things rights impact financial outcomes. It is discovered that proper land paperss chop down term of office instability, increase the estimation of land, advance utilization of perpetual harvests and subsequently climb gather yields. Formal rubric workss are better than set down change paperss. Land rubric has no result on acknowledgment, in opposition to normal premises. Backing for land naming seems advocated on both equity and productivity grounds.† ( 9 ) In their choices to this article, Broegaard, Heltberg and Moller attest the supporters: â€Å"The bit of leeway of formal land paperss is that they chop down term of office weakness and uplift the estimation of the land. They other than give better instigations to place in the land and indict in long haul land use, for example, turning enduring harvests, including java. This outcomes in better quality item. Absence of formal rubric and term of office instability unfavorably influence smallholders, and primarily the least fortunate among them. There are subsequently solid proclamations on both effectiveness and value confirmations for interventions to clear up rights.† ( 10 ) The request should subsequently be how or for what reason did Broegaard move from a position of similar assurance sing the advantages of land naming in the 2002 article, to his place of near uncertainty in the article under reappraisal? It could be the result of a total change of perspective in the three mature ages between the two articles, however I do non accept this to be the example. There is a concise suggestion of what was to come at the terminal of the 2002 article, when he closes the adherents: â€Å"However, the answer to residency security ought to non be constrained to changing the land removal. There is other than an interest for solid and fair-minded battle announcement, and implementation of possessions rights, for more noteworthy stableness and authenticity of specialists foundations, and for improved governance.† ( 11 ) I accept that the answer to our request lies in the methodological examination utilized for the two articles. The removal from a financial technique for taking a gander at measurable informations for accounts, to an anthropological and history based strategy for field inquire about has been for the most part liable for this change in investigations. It is this methodological examination which frames the grapple of this article and is its incredible quality. The re-conceptualization strategy that Broegaard has experienced has prompted an intruding on down of what characterizes term of office security. It is no longer what we accept residency security to be, however the husbandmans ain perceptual encounters and evaluations of their term of office situation which become of import. In determining his footin

As I Lay Dying Essay Example For Students

As I Lay Dying Essay In â€Å"As I Lay Dying† William Faulkner utilizes various perspectives to investigate the subject of presence as a still and good for nothing cycle. The cycle is unmoving in light of the fact that it is certain and unchangeable. One can never leave the pattern of life and passing. Individuals sustain the cycle by making life, however in making life they are making demise, forever unalterably prompts passing. Faulkner portrays presence as trivial. Nothing truly changes in the story. On a superficial level the characters seem to change, for example, Addie kicking the bucket, Darl going insane and Anse getting another spouse, however none of these progressions are truly as applicable as they appear. By utilizing numerous perspectives Faulkner gives us access to every character mind. We perceive how every individual ponders the pattern of presence. This understanding could be cultivated with an omniscient storyteller, however Faulkners way is significantly more powerful. Faulkner permits us to see a ten-year-olds point of view on life and passing from the viewpoint of a ten-year-old, rather than from the viewpoint of some all powerful storyteller that doesnt truly realize what its like to be a ten-year-old. Likewise, the genuine grouping of storytellers is in a cycle. We dont simply hear all of Darls perspective, and afterward Anses, and afterward Peabodys. Faulkner burns through his characters, returning over and over to individuals like Darl and Dewey Dell and Vardaman, while having characters, for example, Jewel and Addie talk just a single time. Addie Bundren is from numerous points of view the focal character of the story. The plot rotates around her as her family attempts to get her body to Jefferson for internment. Her single monolog comes in the specific center of the book, making her topographically the focal character. In particular in any case, she is the character who best communicates the still and pointless pattern of presence. My dad said that the explanation behind living is preparing to remain dead† (506). With life comes the indisputable information that passing will in the long run follow. Individuals live their whole lives realizing that eventually all they need to anticipate is passing. This makes life trivial, since it will all be overlooked with ones demise. In all actuality, this view could be tested by individuals who have confidence in a the great beyond, however the main two extremely strict individuals in â€Å"As I Lay Dying,† Cora and Whitfield, are depicted as fairly dumb and untrustworthy. So Faulkner obviously needs us to imagine that life is negligible. For the characters in his story, life is positively pointless. Addie depicts the aimlessness of life when she discusses words. â€Å"†¦words are nothing worth mentioning; that words dont ever fit even what they are attempting to state at† (504). In the event that words are inane, at that point in what manner would life be able to have importance, since words are humanitys vocation Words are what permit correspondence, and correspondence is the thing that gives life meaning. Without correspondence life is without every single social angle, and people are social animals. Addie understands the pointlessness of life, and she realizes that she is up to speed in the pattern of life and demise, and that there will never be a way out structure it. She realizes that she carried her youngsters into a similar cycle that she herself is in, and that they also will live exhaust lives just beyond words. Dewey Dells circumstance is a case of how the pattern of presence is sustained, even without wanting to. She attempts to not proceed with the cycle into the people to come, yet the cycle is amazing to such an extent that she can't abstain from having the youngster. Faulkner gives us Dewey Dells perspective, in light of the fact that without it we probably won't realize that she is pregnant. .u6d8b64a70edf2777321dcf155337d186 , .u6d8b64a70edf2777321dcf155337d186 .postImageUrl , .u6d8b64a70edf2777321dcf155337d186 .focused content zone { min-stature: 80px; position: relative; } .u6d8b64a70edf2777321dcf155337d186 , .u6d8b64a70edf2777321dcf155337d186:hover , .u6d8b64a70edf2777321dcf155337d186:visited , .u6d8b64a70edf2777321dcf155337d186:active { border:0!important; } .u6d8b64a70edf2777321dcf155337d186 .clearfix:after { content: ; show: table; clear: both; } .u6d8b64a70edf2777321dcf155337d186 { show: square; progress: foundation shading 250ms; webkit-change: foundation shading 250ms; width: 100%; darkness: 1; progress: haziness 250ms; webkit-change: mistiness 250ms; foundation shading: #95A5A6; } .u6d8b64a70edf2777321dcf155337d186:active , .u6d8b64a70edf2777321dcf155337d186:hover { murkiness: 1; change: obscurity 250ms; webkit-progress: murkiness 250ms; foundation shading: #2C3E50; } .u6d8b64a70edf2777321dcf155337d186 .focused content territory { width: 100%; position: relati ve; } .u6d8b64a70edf2777321dcf155337d186 .ctaText { outskirt base: 0 strong #fff; shading: #2980B9; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: striking; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; content embellishment: underline; } .u6d8b64a70edf2777321dcf155337d186 .postTitle { shading: #FFFFFF; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: 600; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; width: 100%; } .u6d8b64a70edf2777321dcf155337d186 .ctaButton { foundation shading: #7F8C8D!important; shading: #2980B9; fringe: none; outskirt range: 3px; box-shadow: none; text dimension: 14px; textual style weight: intense; line-tallness: 26px; moz-outskirt sweep: 3px; content adjust: focus; content improvement: none; content shadow: none; width: 80px; min-tallness: 80px; foundation: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/modules/intelly-related-posts/resources/pictures/basic arrow.png)no-rehash; position: total; right: 0; top: 0; } .u6d8b64a70edf2777321dcf155337d186:hover .ctaButton { foundation shading: #34495E!important; } .u6d8b6 4a70edf2777321dcf155337d186 .focused content { show: table; stature: 80px; cushioning left: 18px; top: 0; } .u6d8b64a70edf2777321dcf155337d186-content { show: table-cell; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; cushioning right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-adjust: center; width: 100%; } .u6d8b64a70edf2777321dcf155337d186:after { content: ; show: square; clear: both; } READ: The sonnet Gujarati EssayIf the story were told from, state, Cashs perspective, we would have no clue that Dewey Dell needs to go to Jefferson to have a fetus removal. An omniscient storyteller could give us this data about Dewey Dell, yet it would not influence us a similar path as when it comes straightforwardly from her. By utilizing the principal individual perspective Faulkner takes us inside the characters brains and makes us a piece of their contemplations and activities. So when Dewey Dell says, â€Å"I lean somewhat forward, one foot progressing with dead walking† it influences us significantly more by an d by than if an omniscient storyteller says something very similar (471). Its like Dewey Dell is offering a piece of herself to us. She is sharing her insight into the pattern of presence. She realizes that she is alive, however that each progression just carries her one bit nearer to death, and she carries us closer to herself by giving us this information. Dewey Dell grasps the perusers such that no omniscient storyteller could in this story. Vardaman is excessively youthful and unpracticed to completely comprehend the significance, or negligibility, of life, yet he impeccably depicts the stillness of the pattern of presence. I strike at them, striking, they wheeling in a long rush, the surrey wheeling onto two haggles like it is nailed to the ground and the ponies still like they are nailed by the rear feet to the focal point of a spinning plate† (469). Life and demise resemble the ponies and carriage exclusively they move, yet the whole cycle remains still in a similar spot. The cycle resembles the spinning plate that Vardaman portrays. It causes things to seem to move and change, however actually everything just remains the equivalent. This spinning and unmoving and revolving around symbolism is rehashed all through the book. The flood scene has the spinning yet fixed symbolism, and scavangers are continually hovering above Addies casket. This rehashed symbolism makes it a significant piece of the story. The progressions that the characters experience truly arent changes by any means; they are only the following stages in the pattern of presence. Addie kicking the bucket just settles her life. She was moving towards death her whole life, and she at last makes it. Anse getting another spouse doesnt transform anything in the family structure. She is only a substitution of Addie. Everyones life goes on similarly as it had previously, except for Darl, who goes to a psychological foundation. In any case, his wildness isn't as abnormal as it initially shows up. All through the whole story Darl is totally befuddled about his own personality. He doesnt know what his identity is, or who he isn't. He doesnt comprehend what his place is throughout everyday life, and the way that he goes insane is just the following stage in his character emergency. Once more, it is on the grounds that we are given Darls musings that his absurdity sounds good to us. We are brought into his confounded brain, thus when it at long last splits we get why. So no one in the story truly changes. They are all in an unmoving reality, moving gradually towards death. Faulkners utilization of perspective encourages us see how the characters feel about their pattern of presence, and the amount of it they genuinely comprehend. On the off chance that Faulkner had recounted to this story some other way, we would not comprehend the cycle just as we do. We wouldnt feel a piece of they story and the characters. We would be far off from their feelings and musings. However, for what it's worth, we feel like a piece of everybody in the story, and we can identify with and comprehend their considerations.

3 P.M. Happiness Updates

3 P.M. Happiness Updates At my former job, as a regional manager for a large telecom company, we sent midday sales updates every day at 3 p.m. Nobody enjoyed this ritual. We didnt look forward to sifting through the numbers, adding them up, formatting an email, and sending it to our bosses. We especially didnt enjoy sending these updates when sales were poor, because we knew it would earn us a phone call from the boss. And god forbid if you were late sending the update: that was an unforgivable sin. It was all very stressful. On a cold day in January, around 2:50 p.m, I was sitting next to my boss in his office as the sales numbers started pouring in from my various stores. Knowing sales had been slow lately, he said, I hope we can report something that makes us happy at 3 p.m. I wrote down that sentence as soon as he said it. He wanted some sales numbers that would make us happy, but I heard something more profound. You see, regardless of the sales numbers, and regardless of whats going on in our lives, we have many things that make us happy. If the sales numbers are down, if life is throwing you a curveball, or if it feels like nobody cares about you, it is difficult to find something to be happy about: but you know, deep down, you have so much to be grateful forâ€"you have so much to be happy about. So for the rest of the month (March 2011), starting today, Im going to send a 3 p.m. Happiness Update via Twitter. It will contain one thing that makes me happy, grateful, or thankful that day. Care to join me? What are you happy about today? Subscribe to The Minimalists via email.

Sustainability and Walmart - 1602 Words

Walmart Stores, Inc. Strategic Initiative Preston Burrell, Sue Ford, Ketia Francois, Chris Hiniker, George Lance FIN370 July 29, 2013 Laura Haase Walmart’s Strategic Initiative Strategic planning is a goal of most if not all companies that exist. Some may use this form of planning on a small scale and meet about things such as improving satisfaction ratings or improving the company’s website. Others meet about larger goals that can change and improve the image and branding of a company. That is the case with Walmart. According to Walmart (2013), the company has been issuing a Global Responsibility Report since 2005. This report covers many areas of importance to Walmart such as talent development, healthier foods,†¦show more content†¦The company has created SVN networks to get feedback from internal and external stakeholders. They come together to develop solutions and deliver tangible results that made a difference for the business. According to â€Å"Walmart, 2013†, â€Å"Those suppliers who partner with us in building a responsible supply chain will be the suppliers who will grow with us† (Sustainability Index). Walmart’s strategic planning initiatives ensure a vast influence of their financial planning. Though Walmart places a massive significance on valuing its goods at very low-slung prices, this also marks their extra actions to be well-organized in a particular mode to exploit on the general earnings (â€Å"Walmart†, 2009). The company’s pricing policy has prepared employers in to be the marketplace forerunner in the United States. The tactical preparation creativities of the organization rely an outcome based on its values and total trades. This company consumes segment growth that can be exposed to different supplies that will broaden Walmart’s current stores, and alter the locations of the company distribution centers. In this case it creates a panel that requires a large amount of sum of principal. The high cost load for the extension of their stores has to be less; these initiatives have proven to be highly active on a complete foundation (â€Å"Wal mart†, 2009). Though this might not build a short-rangeShow MoreRelatedWalmart‚Äà ´s Sustainability Strategy1028 Words   |  5 PagesWalmart’s Sustainability Strategy Why Walmart announces sustainability strategy? There is no need to introduce its background anymore; I think everyone knows the super supermarket leader’s name which is called Walmart. Here is the point that in this case why the CEO of Walmart Scott announced to do the business sustainability strategy in 2005. The sustainability will be the most focused in the 21century when the environment get worse every day. This strategy seems that Walmart will increaseRead MoreWalmart s Environmental Impact On Sustainability1701 Words   |  7 Pagesevaluate their products relates directly to Walmart’s environmental impacts. 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Mexican Americans Perspectives on Death and Dying Essay

Mexican Americans: Death and Dying Hispanics are the fastest growing minority in the United States, and the majority of them are Mexican in origin (Kemp, 2001). The Roman Catholic Church plays a vital role in the culture and daily life of many Mexican Americans. Consequently, healthcare personnel must become culturally competent in dealing with the different beliefs possessed by these individuals. Nurses must have the knowledge and skills necessary to deliver care that is congruent with the patient’s cultural beliefs and practices (Kearney-Nunnery, 2010). The ways that a nurse cares for a Mexican American patient during the process of dying or at the critical time of death is especially important. The purpose of this paper is to examine†¦show more content†¦Multiple family members gather together to give care to the loved one from far and near. The father or the oldest male relative holds the greatest power in most families to make health-related decisions for an ill loved one. Family members feel responsible for bathing, changing, and feeding their loved one daily even during hospital stays (Taxis, 2008). In addition, prayer and ritual are also critical components of the dying process. Family members may pray with the patient at the bedside, at a home altar, or at church. At times, candles are kept lit for 24 hours a day as a symbol of continuous worship. Clergy members may visit to offer spiritual support. As the ill loved one approaches death, the sacrament of anointing of the sick is administered by a priest or lay member (Kemp, 2001). Mexican American families use religious beliefs in the afterlife to help them cope with this emotional process. When death occurs, Mexican Americans are not uncomfortable with the presence of the body of a loved one. Frequently, family members desire to assist with cleaning and arranging the body before the funeral. However, the most important part of this process is to ensure that the body is shown respect b y everyone involved. Although autopsy and organ donation are allowed in Mexican American culture, many families prefer that neither occur. Also, stoicism is no longer expected at the funeral;Show MoreRelatedRacism: The Root Of All Evil1022 Words   |  5 Pagespeople of color or of different beliefs. In the United States, Native Americans, the indigenous people, were the first to experience this violence, followed by black Africans, and later to various degrees, other people of color as they immigrated to the United States (Ponds, 23). Thousands of Latin-Americans immigrate to the United States every year. 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Uncle Tom’s Cabin is a tragic story that displays the life of Uncle Tom, a man of Christian values, honest integrity, and unfailing kindness, taken away from his â€Å"cabin† / family, dying as a result of a slave owner’s menacing behavior. Stowe’s novel is a master of influence. Her novel changed the American public view of slavery. Her impactful statements showed the public how they â€Å"stand hereRead MoreThe Texas Revolution: Its Many Faces3195 Words   |  13 Pagestheir opinions on the events which led, maintained and finished this historical event. In the Texas Revolution of 1835-36, American colonists in Texas secured the independence of that area from Mexico and subsequently established a republic. Since the 1820s many settlers from the United States had colonized Texas; by the 1830s they far outnumbered the Texas Mexicans. Mexican dictator Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna attempted to reverse this trend by such measures as abolishing slavery and enforcingRead MoreDeath Anxiety2491 Words   |  10 Pagesare all bound to encounter, stress and death. Stress is something that affects each and every human, each and every day. Some of us may have higher levels of stress than others. One reaction to stress m ay be anxiety. Anxiety is a physiological, as well as a psychological state. Anxiety may be viewed as a â€Å"more intense† form of stress. Each person will differ when it comes to their own personal causes of anxiety but quite a common worrisome form is that of death anxiety. Every living human being willRead MoreThe Death Of An Individual2107 Words   |  9 Pagesthis semester, for many cultures and religions, the death of an individual is not quite the end. There are still many things done after the death, from preserving the body to never even mentioning that deceased individual’s name again. Life styles tend to influence death styles. Religious beliefs are the primary way to understand how societies frame the explanation, grief management and societal impact of the loss of an individual. In the case of death, although the focus is on the dead individual -Read MoreCrash Review2551 Words   |  11 Pagessensitivity. The film alludes to the possibility Rick might b e having an affair with his black assistant. Jean Cabot (Sandra Bullock) is Ricks wife, whose racial prejudices escalate after she and her husband experience a carjacking. When a tattooed, Mexican-American locksmith changes the locks to her house, she insists that the locks be changed again in fear that he is keeping an extra copy of their house key. Following an accident in her home, she comes to the realization that the person who is her only

No Link Between Autism and Vaccination Free Essays

According to the World Health Organization and the American Psychological Association, autism is a developmental disability, manifesting itself before the age of three, and resulting from a disorder of the central nervous system.   The developmental disability is diagnosed with the use of specific criteria for impairments in the areas of communication, basic social interaction, the interests of affected individuals, and their imagination as well as activities.   Autistic children are known to be slow at basic processes like language acquisition that healthy children are known to learn quickly (â€Å"Autism†). We will write a custom essay sample on No Link Between Autism and Vaccination or any similar topic only for you Order Now The causes of autism are controversial, which is why it is possible for people to formulate a host of theories on the causes of this developmental disability (â€Å"Autism†).   A British study published in February 1998 was misinterpreted by countless people who believed that the data provided proof that the measles, mumps, rubella (MMR) vaccine was responsible for autism in children.   The study was conducted by a team of thirteen scientists with Dr. Andrew Wakefield of Oxford University as the team leader. After it was discovered that parents had begun to fear the MMR vaccine because a debate had been waged with regards to the data presented in their study, ten of the thirteen authors of the study report made the following statement which was published on the BBC website: â€Å"We wish to make it clear that in this paper no causal link was established between MMR vaccine and autism, as the data were insufficient† (Jackson). The demand for vaccination fell in the United Kingdom after the data in the above mentioned study had been misunderstood, and the misinterpreted information had been publicized.   This meant that children could no longer be protected from measles, mumps, and rubella.   In point of  fact, it was found that a significant number of families had entirely given up on the idea of vaccination for their children. Some parents had opted for single vaccines rather than the MMR at the time, but health organizations and the UK government warned that even single vaccines put children at risk (Burke).   What is more, even some doctors in the United States had begun to believe that the MMR vaccination was responsible for autism.   Globalization had spread the rumor overseas.   According to Dr. Mary Megson from Virginia, The segment of children with â€Å"regressive autism,† the form where children develop normally for a period of time then lose skills and sink into autism, most commonly at 18-24 months of age, is increasing at a phenomenal rate.   I am seeing several children in the same family affected, including in the last week four cases of â€Å"autistic regression† developing in four-year-old children after their MMR and DPT vaccination.   In the past, this was unheard of. The doctor from Virginia advised that the implementation of safe vaccine policies should become a first priority, seeing that vaccination cannot be kept away from children (Megson).   The doctor had believed that there was definitely a link between autism and vaccination.   As a matter of fact, many doctors believed what Dr. Megson had believed.   This is because the link between MMR vaccination and autism was that of â€Å"coincidental-timing.†Ã‚   In other words, the symptoms of autism began to occur around the same time as the vaccination. Hence, parents began to falsely believe that the vaccine was indeed responsible for autism.   Dr. Ken Haller, who works as a primary care pediatrician with the Cardinal Glennon Children’s Hospital explained  the false belief thus: â€Å"When something terrible happens to a child, everyone wants a reason for it†¦Ã‚   As a physician, it’s very difficult for me, when I see a kid who’s diagnosed with autism or a seizure disorder, to say we have no idea why this happened.   But people want to grasp onto something; that’s human nature. (Jackson)† The â€Å"insufficient† data in the study conducted by Dr. Wakefield and his colleagues could not find a link between autism and vaccination.   So, two different groups of investigators in the United States attempted to find out whether there was truly a link between autism and vaccination.   Dr. James A. Kaye and his colleagues at the Boston University used the United Kingdom General Practice Research Database to find out whether 254 boys suffering from autism in their study were actually suffering because of MMR vaccination. Dr. Loring Dales and her colleagues at the California Department of Health Services in Berkeley performed a similar study during the same time.   Both of these studies eventually showed that there is no link whatsoever between autism and vaccination.   The results of both of these studies actually showed that while the use of vaccination remained constant over time, the cases of autism increased dramatically among children without vaccination being responsible for the increase (Kubetin). Although it had already been clearly proven that there is definitely no link between autism and vaccination, the developed world where the debate on autism and vaccination had been waged was seeking a truly comprehensive study to show whether there really is a link between autism and vaccination, or not.   K. Madsen, A. Hvii, and M. Vestergaard report on exactly the kind of study that was being sought and finally conducted on Danish children: This is the most direct evaluation of whether MMR causes autism published to date. Though all epidemiological studies conducted in recent years have found no association between the MMR vaccine and onset of autism, design limitations have left some doubt about this issue.   This historical cohort included all Danish children born between 1991 and 1998 when prevalence rates for autism and autistic spectrum disorders were increasing.   Because of the thoroughness of the Danish system of registration, ascertainment of vaccination status and health problems was remarkably accurate and complete.   Since the cohort was composed of the entire population, both vaccinated and unvaccinated children had the same risk of autism prior to exposure to the vaccine.   Nearly all children were accounted for at the end of the study period.   Specialists using the same diagnostic classification system made the diagnosis of autism in a uniform manner. No doubt, this was the comprehensive study with ‘sufficient data’ that parents were seeking the results of.   The design of the study was virtually immaculate.   Most importantly, the study showed once again that there was no difference in the risk of autism in the children that were vaccinated verses those that were not vaccinated.   Moreover, the cases considered as part of the study were not clustered at any point after the immunization.   Madsen et al. report that the registry data that was used did not contain information on children that were suffering from developmental regression.   Hence, the issue that there might be children who show vulnerability to vaccination, could not be ruled out.   If there is a group of such children, the risk for vaccinated  children would be greater than 1.   However, the opposite turned out to be true – that is, there is definitely no risk of autism in children especially because of vaccination. Because the size of the sample of children studied was extraordinarily large, and there was no evidence to show that there is a link between autism and vaccination, Madsen et al. concluded that parents should fearlessly continue to vaccinate their children in order to avoid future outbreaks of disease.   Given that parents had previously only trusted false interpretations of the British study that had seemed to show a link between autism and vaccination, it is now time to give up the false belief entirely.   Science is based on real facts, which is why we all trust scientific information. We have been shown through several studies that there is certainly no link between autism and vaccination.   There have been more studies of the same kind with the same results that we have not discussed.   Future studies may similarly show that there is no link between autism and vaccination.   Even so, parents cannot keep their children from immunization waiting for future studies of the same kind, churning out the same results.   The future of children is at stake without vaccination.   The scientific evidence that has been found thus far is sufficient. Works Cited â€Å"Autism.† (2007). Wikipedia. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism. (4 April 2007). Burke, Maria. â€Å"Every parent’s choice? Autism and vaccination — the jury’s out.† Chemistry and Industry (2002, February 18). Jackson, Harry Jr. â€Å"Debate on autism and vaccination started after British medical study.† St. Louis Post-Dispatch (2004, May 28). Kubetin, Sally Koch. â€Å"MMR Vaccination Not Tied to Rise in Autism Rate.† Clinical Psychiatry News (2001, July 1). Madson, K., A. Hvii, and M. Vestergaard. â€Å"There is little evidence that combined vaccination against measles, mumps, and rubella is associated with autism.† Evidence-Based Mental Health (2003, May 1). Megson, Mary. â€Å"Autism and Vaccinations.† The Weston A. Price Foundation (2004, March 16). Retrieved from http://www.westonaprice.org/children/index.html. (3 April 2007).          How to cite No Link Between Autism and Vaccination, Essay examples

Intro - chief guest free essay sample

It is indeed an honor and privilege for me to introduce to you our Guest of Honor. He brings in the vigor and idealism of youth which we believe are essential to infuse new ideas and transparency in every aspect of life . His experience and credentials is just tremendous! He has a doctorate in (Economics), from the prestigious Harvard University under Nobel Laureate Simon Kuznets, and has held various positions too . To mention a few he *was an assistant/ associate professor at Harvard university. *Faculty Summer School, Harvard University . * Visiting Scholar and Professor, Department of Economics, Harvard University. When he was associate professor, he was invited by Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen for a reader’s chair on Chinese studies at Delhi School of Economics. Thereafter he became the *Visiting Professor of Economics, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi Later ,he became the Professor of Economics, Indian Institute of Technology,Delhi He has been the backbone for the Indian Government serving at various Positions : Assistant Economics Affairs Officer, United Nations Secretariat, New York. We will write a custom essay sample on Intro chief guest or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page * Member of Parliament * Member, Board of Governors, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi * Member, Control of Capital Issues Committee, Ministry of Finance. * Member, Court of Benares Hindu University (1974) and Santiniketan (1982-84). * Member, Council of IITs, Govt. of India *Cabinet Minister of Commerce, Law and Justice,1990-91. * Chairman : Commission of Labour Standards and International Trade,Government of India. He is Currently the President of Janata Party . *Chairman, Centre for National Renaissance, New Delhi *Chairman, Board of Governors , School of Communications and Management Sciences (SCMS) , kerala. He has authored many Books among which * Economic Planning in India – An Alternative Approach * Economic Growth of China and India, * Building a New India: An Agenda for Renaissance, * India’s Labour Standards and the WTO Framework. * The Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi Unanswered Questions and Unasked Queries * South Asia in the New Millennium * India’s China Perspective *Economic Reforms and Performance in China and India * Hindus Under Siege: The Way Out *Rama Setu: Symbol of National Unity *Terrorism in India: A Strategy of Deterrence * Corruption and Corporate Governance in India: Satyam, Spectrum, Sundaram * The Foundations of Index Number Theory. Have been very successful.  He has also published several articles and research paper some of which are Can India make it? Indias path to sustained growth , Economic growth and income distribution in a developing nation , Nuclear policy for India, Plan for full employment. He brings to us not only his invaluable experience and academic training but a lineage of brave , innovative , and forward looking forebears.

Whats the Best Food to Eat Before a Test

Whats the Best Food to Eat Before a Test Proper nutrition is important, and doubly so on important days like when you take a test. Keeping up your energy during the exam is crucial to your success. Ever had one of those times when youre staring at the sheet and are just drawing a blank, even though you know for sure youve studied this? It might be because you didnt pay proper attention to what you ate, and it resulted in your blood sugar flatlining at the worst moment. Heres a little guide on how to avoid it happening again. Eat Light the Night Before If youre cramming the night before a test (like any proper student would), it might be hard not to get pizza as a way of rewarding yourself. You should consider putting off that reward until you actually write the test, though. Its best to wake up hungry and not with that pregnant feeling everyone gets when eating right before going to bed. Drink Water First thing you should do for energy is drink water. Americans, as a whole, dont drink enough liquids, if you discount for sugary drinks. A glass of cold water on an empty stomach is a great way to start the day and boost your metabolism – which means youll have more energy throughout the day. Eat Your Vitamins Starting your day right means getting all the vitamins your body is going to need throughout the day. Consider, at the least, fish oil and a vitamin B supplement. Fish oil is great for energy boosting, as well as increasing metabolism and clearing up skin, and without sufficient B12, your body is not going to have proper energy reserves, and thats just two of them. Getting a blood test from your doctor will tell you better what daily supplements you should be taking. Caffeine and Energy Drinks Unless youre a total, complete addict, youll want to go without coffee and especially energy drinks. Drinking them gives an energy boost, but the crash or comedown is not worth it, especially if it happens while youre taking your test. If you absolutely cannot start the day without a beverage to bolster your energy, try green tea. It has lower amounts of caffeine, but does have anti-oxidants that coffee lacks. Eat Breakfast The most important meal of the day. If youre one of those people who doesnt have their first meal until lunchtime, you should think about having a proper breakfast. This will provide you with the energy boost you get from coffee, and sustain you until you have lunch. Since breakfast is the most vital meal of the day, you should be all that choosier with what you eat. Try and avoid sugary cereals. Yes, theyre pretty much the best, and you might say, why even wake up if I cant have my sugar fix right away? The same reason as coffee: sugar, as well as all carbs, gets you going fast, and you crash just as hard. Its the thing that metabolizes the fastest, so it wont sustain you for very long, and, as has been said above, were trying to avoid that crash. Instead of Lucky Charms, try something thats high in fat and protein. Eggs with hummus, for instance. Some sort of lean meat, like grass-fed beef or salmon is also a great way to start the day. Try it with some avocado for those healthy omega acids, and eat it on an English muffin to avoid being completely boring with your food choices. If youre a vegan, try mixing quinoa or chickpeas with some spinach or kale, add some nuts, and dress with vinegar for a morning salad. Whatever youre eating on exam day, be conscious of how long its going to sustain you for. You know your body best, and if you know a Red Bull in the morning and a Red Bull before the test is going to get you through it, then, by all means, indulge. Keep in mind, though, youre not going to be 20 forever, and at some point youre going to have to think about how healthy the choices youre making are. Until then, have fun.

A Guide to Composite Materials in Boats

A Guide to Composite Materials in Boats Composite materials are broadly defined as those in which a binder is reinforced with a strengthening material. In modern terms, the binder is usually a resin, and the reinforcing material consists of glass strands (fiberglass), carbon fibers or aramid fibers. However, there are other composites too, such as ferrocement and wood resins, which are still used in boatbuilding. Composites offer the advantages of a higher strength-to-weight ratio than traditional wood or steel methods, and they require lower skill levels to produce an acceptable hull finish on a semi-industrial scale. History of Composites in Boats Ferrocement Probably the earliest use of composites for boats was ferrocement. This material was extensively used in the first half of the twentieth century for building low-cost, low-tech barges. Later in the century, it became popular not only for one-off home projects but also for production boatbuilders. A steel frame made of reinforcing rod (known as an armature) forms the hull shape and is covered with chicken wire. It is then plastered with cement and cured. Although a cheap and simple composite, armature corrosion is a common problem in the chemically aggressive marine environment. There are still many thousands of ferro boats in use today, however – the material has enabled many people to realize their dreams. GRP During the Second World War, just after polyester resins were developed, glass fibers became available following the accidental discovery of a production process using blown air on a stream of molten glass. Soon, glass-reinforced plastic became mainstream and GRP boats started to become available in the early 1950s. Wood/Adhesive Composites Wartime pressures also led to the development of cold-molded and hot-molded boatbuilding techniques. These approaches entailed laying thin veneers of wood over a frame and saturating each layer with a glue. High-performance urea-based adhesives developed for aircraft manufacturers were widely used for the new technique of molding boat hulls – typically for PT boats. Some adhesives required baking in an oven to cure and hot-molded hulls were developed, though there were size limitations governed by access to industrial ovens. Modern Composites in Boats Since the 1950s, polyester and vinylester resins have improved steadily and GRP has become the most prevalent composite used in boatbuilding. It is used in shipbuilding too, typically for minesweepers that need non-magnetic hulls. Osmotic problems from which early-generation boats suffered are now a thing of the past with modern epoxy compounds. In the 21st century, volume GRP boat production follows a full industrial production process. Wood/epoxy molding techniques are still in use today, typically for rowing skiffs. Other wood/adhesive composites have evolved since the introduction of high-performance epoxy resins. Strip planking  is one such popular technique for home boat construction: Strips of wood (typically cedar) are laid longitudinally over frames and coated with epoxy. This simple construction offers a cheap and strong build with a fair finish easily achievable by an amateur. At the leading edge of boat building, aramid fiber reinforcing strengthens key areas of sailboats, such as the bows and keel sections. Aramid fiber also provides improved shock absorption. Carbon fiber masts are increasingly common, as they offer major performance and vessel-stability benefits. Sailboats also use composites in their sail construction, with carbon-fiber or glass-fiber tape offering a flexible but dimensionally stable matrix to which synthetic sailcloth is laminated. Carbon fiber has other marine uses too – for example for high-strength interior moldings and furniture on super-yachts. The Future of Composites in Boatbuilding The costs of carbon fiber fall as production volumes increase  so the availability of sheet carbon fiber (and other profiles) is likely to become more prevalent in boat  production. Materials science and composite technology are advancing rapidly, and new composites include carbon nanotube and epoxy mixtures. Recently, a small naval vessel with a hull built using carbon nanotubes was delivered as a concept project. Lightness, strength, durability, and ease of production mean that composites will play an increasing part in boat construction. Despite all the new composites, Fiber-reinforced polymer composites are here to stay for very many years, though it will surely be in partnership with other exotic composites.

How does the promotion strategy effect the customer purchase Literature review

How does the promotion strategy effect the customer purchase - Literature review Example Mela, Gupta and Lehmann (1997) discussed the long-term impact of promotions on brand performance. Even though, this article takes dependent variable as brand performance instead of customer purchase, it has been chosen because brand performance is, after all, a determinant of customer purchase. Mela, Gupta and Lehmann (1997) investigated the long-term impact of advertising and promotion on customer’s brand choice behavior. Customer’s brand choice behavior depended upon two decisive factors. i. Is there any response of customers on the variables of marketing mix such as product, price, place and promotion? ii. If so, are these changes related to the promotional policies of retailers and manufacturers? The results of the study revealed that in long run, price promotion makes both types of customers; loyal and non-loyal. In addition to that, Mela, Gupta and Lehmann (1997) concluded that advertising has good affect on consumers’ brand choice behavior whereas promotions have bad affect on the brand choice behavior of consumers (Mela, Gupta and Lehmann, 1997). Personalization, also known as customization, is the popular concept of marketing. It has become a necessity for many organizations. Savadkoohi (2012) conducted a study to investigate advantages and disadvantages of customization for companies as well as customers. The paper emphasized upon the personalized online promotions and its impact on consumers’ buying behavior. Savadkoohi (2012) concluded that the successful online personalization strategies can increase the buying behavior of the customers and thereby, can affect the companies’ profitability. Nowadays, online marketing, selling and promotion have become very common. Companies utilize the platform of internet in order to attract more customers. Ye, Haohong and Fei (2010) conducted a study to investigate the impact of sales promotion on C2C online shopping behavior of consumer. In order to examine the relationship between these variables, Ye, Haohong and Fei (2010) used an empirical method. The results of the st udy revealed that online promotion has direct influence on the attitude of customers but the intention of purchase is not significant. However, it might help in building a brand perception in minds of customers. Therefore, online promotion can be effective in increasing the brand awareness (Ye, Haohong and Fei, 2010). Modi and Jhulka (2012) conducted a study in order to measure the impact of promotional schemes on the buying behavior of consumers. Modi and Jhulka (2012) examined five types of promotional schemes, which included Festival Season Offers, Special Gift, Exchange Offer, Product Warranties and Contest Prizes. A questionnaire was constructed in order to perform the research and gather the relevant data. Chi square test was performed to test the null hypotheses. The results of the study revealed that promotional schemes can be proved as effective tool to organizations for selling their products. The authors further stated that promotional schemes can be very useful especiall y in the car purchasing decision of consumers (Modi and Jhulka, 2012). Costa, Epperson, Huang and McKissick (2002) conducted a study to determine the impact of advertising and promotion on the scanned purchases of Vidalia onion. Another aim of the study was to examine the expected return on expenditure of promotion. In order to gather the data of Vidalia onion, scanned copies from the supermarket were collected. Vidalia Onion Marketing Order generates the promotion expenditure. In order to carry out the research, Costa, Epperson, Huang and McKissick (2002) utilized error component model for 10 different markets for the period of 1996 to 2001. Results of the study revealed that advertising and promotion expenditures influenced the demand of Vidalia onion substantially over the research period. Keeping in mind the seasonality of Vidalia onion, more promotional activities can be done in order to increase the

Platos Republic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Platos Republic - Essay Example Socrates was outspoken in criticizing the new government and after the Democrats took hold of power, Socrates’ relationship with the oligarchic set up made his enemies to find appropriate reasons to make him face trial. They charged him with corrupting the youth of Athens through immoral ways and in spite of his articulately expressed defense, Socrates was held guilty and condemned to death. In his Apology, Plato has recorded the last days of Socates’ life. Socrates continued to remain staunch and true to his belief system and was unwilling to go back on his past statements. He even refused the offer of exile and willingly ingested the cup of hemlock poison that ended his life. This paper holds that the charges against Socrates did not have strength and that they were primarily a result of the ongoing political strife amongst the varied claimants who wanted to lose no opportunity in claiming positions of authority in the newly established democracy. The defense for Socr ates will be substantiated by repeatedly referring to Plato’s Republic because there is considerable circumstantial evidence in this work to steer him clear of the charges of corrupting Athenian youth (p.36). We know that Socrates was charged of corrupting the youth through a few contemporary Greek sources; Plato, Xenophon and the playwright Aristophanes. The Republic was born in Plato’s mind in his early youth while he was hopeful of becoming a politician. At this time he was much impressed with Socrates and became his pupil informally. Following the Peloponnesian war, Athens was ruled for about eight months by the Thirty Tyrants who were an oligarchic and tyrannical power group that tried to enroll Socrates as well as Plato within their group. Although Plato did not give a clear signal, Socrates openly refused to join them and very soon became reputed for adopting anti-democratic ideas. This proved to be very dangerous for Socrates, especially after the taking over of governance by the fundamental democratic set up that had soon over thrown the Thirty Tyrants. Socrates was tried by the newly formed Athenian democracy for having corrupted the youth, introduced new gods and for ha ving adopted and encouraged atheism. He was convicted to death and subsequently executed, of which Plato was a witness. Plato was extremely disillusioned. The Athenians held that in having corrupted the youth Socrates encouraged the young to accompany him on his chosen path. Such developments made the youth of the day to confront the fundamentalist democracy of the period (p.248). In ascertaining whether Socrates had actually corrupted the youth in Athens, this paper relies on Plato’s Republic, which is a thorough analysis of the circumstances that prevailed during the time. In some ways it can be said that Socrates did teach new divinities and in some ways he did not. Socrates was ready to respect the conventional gods such as Athena and Zeus. In fact, all the available evidence indicates that he believed in polytheism. He was in agreement with Hesiod and Homer that these gods had physical characteristics and would always remain alive. However, his images of the gods were mo re illustrious as compared to the images of the gods that one understands from recitations of Homer and other groups of story tellers and god talkers that were known as muthologoi and theologoi respectively, during the period. Socrates held that the gods were wise,

Competition law in Nigeria

Competition law in Nigeria INTRODUCTION SCOPE OF THESIS The area of Competition law in Nigeria remains an area of law that has not been fully tapped. Currently, there is no competition law operating in Nigeria and although there has been a bill, it is yet to be passed to law. The ongoing lack of a competition law regime has quite predictably led to price-fixing, excessive pricing of products , market concentration as well as domination being the order of the day, all to the detriment of the consumer. The primary objective of this thesis therefore, is to discover the value of introducing Competition law in Nigeria and indeed a sector specific Competition Law to the Nigerian Communications Industry. The theses will begin by examining the global significance of Nigeria and the position of Nigeria as a developing economy. This research further seeks to examine the state of the Nigerian telecommunications industry and the steps that have been taken by the Nigerian Government towards the opening up of the telecommunications industry in Nigeria. The thesis will also look at both the arguments for and against the introduction of a competition law in Nigeria and a specific competition law in the telecommunications industry which forms the main focus of this research. The present situation in Nigeria can be likened to a market where all the telecommunications providers provide their services at the same price, a price that always seems to be a little higher week after week, In such a case, what might have happened is that the telecommunications providers have formed cartels so that they can force up prices and make large profits. If such is the case, it is the welfare of the customers that suffers because of the lack of competition. Competition issues in various sectors of the economy are handled by other regulatory regimes such as The Special Trade and Malpractices Investigation panel, standards organisation of Nigeria, Nigerian Civil Aviation authority, Securities and Exchange commission, Central Bank of Nigeria, and of particular importance to this thesis, The Nigerian Communication Commission (NCC) which is the national regulatory authority for the telecommunications industry in Nigeria. The question that arises however is whether the regulations set out by the NCC are sufficient to promote and preserve competition. This thesis will analyse the position of the NCC as a regulator of the Nigerian telecommunications industry. RATIONALE AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY In carrying out this research, the author will rely on a collection of theories, comparative study of the Law in different jurisdictions and Interviews with various individuals who have experience in this field. Primary and secondary sources of information will be used to collect and analyze data to come to a viable conclusion. The primary sources which the author will utilize include authoritative materials of the law such as the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, statutes and legislations in force, official publications and judicial decisions relating to competition law, telecommunications law and Privatization in Nigeria. Books, journals, articles, dictionaries, periodicals, newspapers, The Federal Competition Bill and internet documents will constitute secondary sources of information. These are materials which pertain to law but are not themselves authoritative records of legal rules. A comparative study of competition law systems in other jurisdictions will also form a part of the study. In order to make this thesis logical, the author will sketch headings and arrange materials to accommodate research findings. Headings and cross headings will not only assist to readily identify where a particular point has been dealt with, it will also make the theses flow in a logical way and keep the readers interested. Because the area of law to being researched in this thesis is relatively young in Nigeria, it is necessary to perform foundation research and as such, secondary sources of research will be highly relied upon in this thesis. Challenges of Research Methodology: It is widely accepted that competition authorities in developed and developing countries alike encounter challenges and obstacles in their effort to promote competition and enforce their various competition laws. While the challenges faced are similar in nature their degrees vary across countries. It has been observed that Developing countries such as Nigeria do not generally place the implementation and administration of competition law on their priority lists. They are generally of the mind that it is like giving a silk tie to a hungry child. However, with the changing global landscape, trade barriers being removed and markets becoming more integrated, developing countries find themselves in the situation in which they now have no choice but to institute the relevant legislation. The implementation of institutional reform that the developed countries took several decades to accomplish is now being thrust upon developing countries which do not have the luxury of time, the requisite skill or the resources. In the same vein, in carrying out research on competition law in the Nigerian telecommunications industry, the author came across various research challenges. The main challenge has been the inability to get research materials. This is due to the fact that the area of research is still in its infant stage in Nigeria as a result there is not enough written material on it. Further, it is a very contentious and political issue as a result; companies, institutions and individuals who have access to necessary material or information are not willing to release information. The Bureaucratic nature of Nigerian Institutions also posed as a major challenge to this research. This is because there are many levels of management, much paperwork and impersonal officials working to a fixed routine who seem to find it difficult to provide necessary information or give necessary interviews which would be advantageous to this research paper. The unstable state of the Nigerian Telecommunications Limited (NITEL) which operated monopoly status in the Nigerian Telecommunications industry for a long time also proved to be a challenge in getting research information. This is because as management of NITEL changed, the operations change and this makes it difficult to get information on previous happenings in the company. Other challenges faced by the author in the research process came in the telephone interview process. This is because some people do not have telephones or do not have their telephone numbers listed. People also often dislike intrusion of a call to their homes and never have time for a telephone interview at work. Also telephone interviews need to be relatively short or people get impatient or feel imposed on. The use of the internet as a form of research also came with its own challenges some of which include accuracy and reliability of information obtained from online sources and difficulties in verifying a writers credentials. COUNTRY PROFILE AND GLOBAL SIGNIFICANCE OF NIGERIA The Federal Republic of Nigeria consists of 36 states and 774 local governments administrations. The Capital city is Abuja, located in the Federal Capital Territory and it is geographically situated in the middle of the Country. Nigeria has a population of over 148 million making it the largest market in sub-Saharan Africa with reasonably skilled and potential manpower for efficient and effective management of investment projects within the country. Nigeria is a regional power and it is listed among the Next eleven economies Nigeria is a nation blessed with an abundance of natural and mineral resources as well as renewable energy sources. Its oil reserves make Nigeria in the league of the top ten petroleum rich nations, and by far the most affluent in Africa. Nigeria is a member of the organisation of petroleum exporting nations which makes it significant to the world at large. The petroleum industry in Nigeria has brought unprecedented changes in the Nigerian economy, particularly in the past five decades when it replaced agriculture as the cornerstone of the Nigerian economy and contributes the lion share of in the nations gross domestic product, accounting for the bulk of federal government revenue and foreign exchange earnings. The Nigerian economy can be described as most promising. Nigeria has however been long hobbled by political instability, corruption, inadequate infrastructure, and poor macroeconomic management. Nigerias former military rulers failed to diversify the economy away from its overdependence on the capital-intensive oil sector, which provides 95% of foreign exchange earnings and about 80% of budgetary revenues. Following the signing of an IMF stand-by agreement in August 2000, Nigeria received a debt-restructuring deal from the Paris Club and a $1 billion credit from the IMF, both contingent on economic reforms. Nigeria has a mixed economy which accommodates all; individuals, corporate organisations and government agencies to invest in almost all economic activities. Over the last decade, the Nigerian government has introduced some economic measures such as liberalisation and privatisation of sectors that had been monopolies, with the purpose of introducing competition, wealth creation and encouraging foreign investors. In 2003, the Nigerian government instituted the National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS), a domestically designed and run program modelled on the IMFs Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility for fiscal and monetary management[4]. NEEDS focused on four key strategies; poverty reduction, wealth creation, employment generation and value re-orientation. The initiative has recorded remarkable achievements, meeting most of its targets, and in some instances surpassing them. In November 2005, Nigeria won Paris Club approval for a debt-relief deal that eliminated $18 billion of debt in exchange for $12 billion in payments a total package worth $30 billion of Nigerias total $37 billion external debt. The deal requires Nigeria to be subject to stringent IMF reviews. OVERVIEW OF THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS INDUSTRY The telecommunications industry forms a major infrastructural requirement for any meaningful economic development to take place in a country. The importance of a robust telecommunications infrastructure cannot be over emphasized as it is pertinent to economic growth, and constitutes a significant portion of the worlds economy. This chapter discusses the historical and present state of the global telecommunications industry with particular focus on Nigeria. The Chapter will consider the policy approach to deregulation of the Nigerian telecommunications industry, as well as provide an overview of the evolution of the Nigerian telecommunications industry from the colonial times to full liberalisation as is the position now Over the last one hundred and thirty (130) years, the global telecommunications industry has experienced an unprecedented growth from an almost unnoticed analogue telephony to a modern digital mobile communication with billions of subscribers worldwide. This is evident in the Europe and Latin American telecommunications market worth â‚ ¬424bn in 2007, with mobile services accounting for 51%. The Evolution of the Global Telecommunications Industry The African telecommunications market being the fastest growing telecoms market in the world plays host to the next wave of global competition. In 2006 alone, mobile companies signed up about 60 million new subscribers across the continent, as many people as the entire population of the United Kingdom. Africas unique infrastructure challenges have made telecommunications (particularly mobile phones) an indispensable business and social tool. Despite impressive recent growth in telecommunications, penetration rates in Africa remain relatively low, thereby suggesting a large underlying potential market in this populous continent. It is expected that 260 million new subscribers will be added across Africa by 2014, nearly equal to the present population of the entire United States of America. THE NIGERIAN TELECOMMUNICATIONS INDUSTRY In consonance with the global trend in the telecommunications industry, Nigeria shares a similar success story over the past 130 years of navigating its telecommunications operations. The figure below shows incremental successes achieved within the Nigeria telecoms industry. The Evolution of the Nigerian Telecommunications Industry HISTORY OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS IN NIGERIA Telecommunications facilities came into being in 1886 by the colonial administration. The initial purpose was merely to carry out administrative duties as opposed to the provision of socio economic development for the country. Thus, the introduction of public telegraph services connecting Lagos by submarine cable along the west coast of Africa to Ghana, Sierra-Leone, Gambia and on to England was more important than an efficient telecommunications network. Subsequently, as at 1960 when Nigeria gained her independence, there were only 18,724 telephone lines available for a population estimated at 40 million people. This translated to a tele-density of about 0.5 telephone lines per 1,000 people. The telephone network consisted of 121 exchanges out of which 116 were of the manual (magneto) type and only 5 were automatic. Since independence, there have been a number of development plans for the expansion and modernisation of the telecommunications networks and services. Most of these plans were not fully implemented. After the Nigerian Independence in 1965 and up until 1985, the telecommunications industry was divided into: The department of Posts and Telecommunications (P T) and The Nigerian External Telecommunications (NET) Limited, P T took charge of the internal network while NET overlooked the external telecommunications services and provided the gateway to the outside world. By the end of 1985, the installed switching capacity was about 200,000 lines as against the planned target of about 460,000. All the exchanges were analogue, and telephone penetration remained poor equal to 1 telephone line to 440 inhabitants, well below the target of 1 telephone line to 100 inhabitants recommended by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) for developing countries. The quality of service was largely unsatisfactory, the telephone was unreliable, congested, expensive and customer unfriendly. These unsatisfactory services led to the split of P T in January 1985, it was divided into Postal Division and Telecommunications Divisions. The telecommunications division was merged with NET to form Nigerian Telecommunications Limited (NITEL),a limited liability Company, while the Postal Division was reconstituted into another organisation called the Nigerian Postal Service (NIPOST). NITEL On establishment, NITEL became the national operator for telecommunications services in Nigeria. Although efforts are being made to privatise NITEL, and indeed there was a recent privatisation attempt where by 51% equity stake of NITEL was sold to core investors, this privatisation attempt was reversed and NITEL remains wholly owned by the Government of Nigeria. NITEL was set up to reverse the defects which characterised telecommunications development from independence up until 1984[11]. Its main objective was to harmonise the co ordination of the external and internal telecommunications services, rationalise investments in telecommunications development and provide easy access, efficient and affordable services. The historical key businesses of NITEL include fixed telephony services including international, internet, payphone and interconnection; Long distance carrier including fixed international calls and satellite services; cellular, including all cellular activity carried out within M-Tel. After the inception of NITEL,little progress was made in the development of the telecommunications industry and it was still characterised with poor management, lack of accountability and transparency and inefficiency. At this time, NITEL occupied a monopoly status and being owned by the Government, this resulted in its having a weak infrastructure base, high unmet demand, Lines concentrated in selected urban areas, slow growth of subscriber base and limited investment into the telecommunications sector. In order to tackle these short comings, and in line with what obtains in several developed nations, The Government of Nigeria identified that Liberalisation of the Telecommunications market was essential for rapid network growth. Private sector participation was essential for attracting financial resources, innovation and new technology. The industry was thus deregulated through the establishment of the Nigerian Communications Commission (NCC) by Decree No. 75 of 1992. The NCC has since approved almost 200 operating licenses for private providers of various telecommunications services, including internet services providers, which of course has in turn generated a high demand for telecommunications equipment, accessories, consultancy and technical partnerships. In addition, NITEL has approved various private firms to be connected to its switching systems so as to provide more lines (with greater efficiency and service) and thus act as a buffer for the grossly inadequate NITEL services. Despite all these efforts, it was quite clear that there was a dire need for the Nigerian Government to be more pro-active about improving telecommunications. As such, in 2000, the NCC awarded licenses for Global System of Mobile Communications (GSM) to NITEL by auction to two preferred bidders Econet Wireless Nigeria Limited and MTN Nigeria Limited. The licenses were bought at almost US$240million dollars, the highest amounts ever paid for such licenses in the world. The GSM technology has completely overshadowed NITELs land lines, as the demand is high for them due to efficiency, despite the astronomical tariffs its consumers are subjected to. These cumulative events eventually spurred the NCC, through the Bureau of Public Enterprises (its secretariat) to seek to privatise NITEL by requesting for Core investors to acquire controlling interest in the entity and manage its day to day activities. The privatization of NITEL has always been shrouded in controversies and politics. Many people are of the view that the Federal Government has not shown enough seriousness or sincerity in the many attempts to sell the telecommunications company. The first attempt in 2002 to privatise NITEL could not materialise due to the failure of Investment International Limited (ILL) of Britain to pay the $1.317 billion it offered for the 31 per cent shares of the company. ILL paid up the mandatory 10 per cent deposit, but was unable to make up the balance by the end of several deadline Periods, thereby derailing the process. Another attempt was made in 2003 with the engagement of a Dutch company, called Pentascope to manage NITEL and put it on sound footing preparatory to its sale. This one also collapsed. In the third attempt, Orascomm of Egypt offered $256.43 million for 51 per cent shares of NITEL. This offer was considered ridiculously low, and, so the government cancelled the deal. This has been the story of the efforts to privatize this big and potentially rich government-owned telecommunications firm. One deal that stood out was the Pentascope agreement. While Pentascope was expected to revitalize NITEL, Pentascope ended up not only ruining the company but it mounting up huge debts for the company as well. In particular, when Pentascope took over NITEL in March 2003, NITEL had about N17.7 billion in its coffers. However about a year later when its agreement with NITEL was terminated, it had left NITEL with a debt burden of N38 billion and a reduction in the number of functional land lines from 455,000 to 288,000. It therefore seems correct to state that the singular error of picking Pentascope as the management consultant to NITEL in 2003 is largely responsible for the pitiable condition the company finds itself in today. In 2006, 51 per cent equity in NITEL was sold to another company, Transnational Corporation[16], (TRANSCORP), for US $ 500 million. However, this process also failed to turn around the operator as TRANSCORP has been unable to raise the money to overcome the many problems of NITEL. The Nigerian government holds 49% of NITEL. The government however, wants Transcorp to sell 27% of Nitel to a new investor, which would then purchase a further 24% from the government to take control. This new core investor was scheduled to take over in February 2009; however this has not yet happened. In the meantime, the NCC has awarded a second national carrier license to Globacom Nigeria Limited, the only company out of three who expressed an Interest that was able to come up with the US$20 million 10% deposit of the Auction price requested by the NCC. Government was of the belief that a second National carrier would offer much needed competition to NITEL. Globacom has since commenced operations and as of today, it has the third highest subscriber network in the Country. POLICY APPROACH TO DEREGULATION AND PRIVATIZATION Liberalisation and privatisation It was only a matter of time before it became clear to Nigerian policy-makers that a shift in its policies was required. The over-regulation of the economy had become unhelpful, the economy was anaemic, and the Government had trouble keeping up with subventions to State owned enterprises, many of whom, at any rate, were inefficiently and unprofitably run. For SOEs in the telecommunication sector such as NITEL, the implications of its inefficiency for the entire economy were very far-reaching as it contributed to the retardation of the countrys overall industrial development. The merits of a deregulated economy were thus too overpowering for the Nigerian Government to ignore: much-needed foreign direct investment was to be attracted, bringing in tow the required technology, management and technical skills that would not only boost the economy but would transform the SOEs. To achieve this, however, it was obvious that radical legal reforms would have to be undertaken. Following the collapse of communism and apartheid, more countries joined the race for foreign investors. Investment climates therefore needed to be competitive. Before then, through the indigenisation policy pursued since the early 1970s, foreign investors in Nigeria had to contend with ceding a portion of their business to local investors. The real challenge, however, lay in removing regulation and monopoly so that foreign investors could have a level playing field. What followed was a rash of laws designed to facilitate foreign direct investment in Nigeria. Significant among these reforms was the repeal of the Nigerian Enterprises Promotions Decree 1989 (under which the indigenisation policy was sustained), and in its place came the Nigerian Investment Promotion Decree No.16, 1995 which made it possible for an enterprise to be 100 per cent owned by foreign investors. Also, the Exchange Control Act 1990 under which foreign investors required the approval of the Minister of Finance in order to transfer profits abroad was repealed in favour of the Foreign Exchange Decree No.15, 1995 that guaranteed free transfer of capital. The Companies Act 1968 was also repealed in favour of the Companies and Allied Matters Act, 1990, a more comprehensive and forward-looking company code. Against these reforms, Nigeria began its gradual journey towards deregulation, privatisation and a free market economy. However, as the free market was a model that had never previously been applied in Nigeria, its handlers had trouble grappling with it, and this led to the initial efforts being short-lived.This was followed by another privatisation law, the Bureau of Public Enterprises Decree, 1993. Privatization In every great monarchy in Europe, the sale of crown lands will produce a very large sum of money, which if applied to the payment of public debts, would deliver from mortgage a much greater revenue than any which those lands have ever afforded to the crownWhen the crown lands become private property, they will in the course of a few years become well improved and well cultivated ADAM SMITH, WEALTH OF NATIONS (1776). The term privatization is used to describe a range of different policy initiatives designed to alter the balance between the public and private sectors. It commonly refers to the transfer of ownership and control of enterprise from the state to the private sector.This may occur in various ways, such as, the sale of all or part of the privatized companys equity to the public, or the sale of the company as a complete entity. It may also take the form of joint ventures, where the private sector will invest in a public enterprise Privatization as a tool for economic management came about in the early 1970s when Chile became the first country to turn public businesses to private operators. Since then, over 140 countries have embraced privatization as a route to economic growth and prosperity. In the process of privatization, more investible capital has been injected into the various economies through local and foreign investors to the benefit of the country at large. In the process, funds that would have been committed to the maintenance of otherwise inefficient enterprises have been freed into more productive sectors of the economy. Privatization in Nigeria Privatization in Nigeria was formally introduced by the Privatization and Commercialization Act of 1988[25], This Act set up the Technical Committee on Privatization and Commercialization (TCPC) with a mandate to privatize 111 public enterprises and commercialize 34 others. In 1993, having privatized 88 out of the 111 enterprises listed in the decree, the TCPC concluded its assignment and submitted a final report. Based on the recommendation of the TCPC, the Federal Military Government promulgated the Bureau for Public Enterprises Act of 1993, which repealed the 1988 Act and set up the Bureau for Public Enterprises (BPE) to implement the privatization program in Nigeria. As at May 1999 the Federal Government investment in these public enterprises was in the region of US$100 billion. In spite of these massive investments, however, public enterprises have failed to perform the functions and attain the objectives for which they were set up. The gross failure of these enterprises to live up to expectations is partly responsible for the current move towards economic liberalization, competition and privatization. The philosophy behind privatization in Nigeria therefore is to restructure and rationalize the public sector not only to lessen the dominance of unproductive investments in the sector but also to initiate the process of gradual cession to the private sector of public enterprises which are believed to be better operated by the private sector. It is also expected that the privatization programme will provide the channel for reintegrating Nigeria back into the global economy as a platform to attract foreign direct investment in an open, fair and transparent manner. THE ENABLING PRIVATISATION LAWS Public Enterprises (Privatisation and Commercialisation) Act 1999 provides the enabling legislation for the implementation of the privatization and commercialization programme. This Act created the National Council on Privatization (NCP) whose functions include: making policies on privatization and commercialization; determining the modalities for privatization and advising the government accordingly; determining the timing of privatization for particular enterprises; approving the prices for shares and the appointment of privatization advisers; ensuring that commercialized public enterprises are managed in accordance with sound commercial principles and prudent financial practices; and Interfacing between the public enterprises and the supervising ministries in order to ensure effective monitoring and safeguarding of the managerial autonomy of the public enterprises. The 1999 Act also established the Bureau of Public Enterprises (BPE) as the secretariat of the National Council on Privatization. The functions of the bureau include among others to do the following: implement the councils policies on privatization and commercialization; prepare public enterprises approved by the council for privatization and commercialization; advise the council on capital restructuring needs of enterprises to be privatized; ensure financial discipline and accountability of commercialized enterprises; make recommendations to the council in the appointment of consultants, advisers, investment bankers, issuing houses, stockbrokers, solicitors, trustees, accountants, and other professionals required for the purpose of either privatization or commercialization; and Ensure the success of privatization and commercialization implementation through monitoring and evaluation. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 Nigerian laws dealing with the issues of privatization do not exist in a vacuum. It is part of the body of laws governing the transfer and acquisition of property in Nigeria. The most fundamental legal document in Nigeria is the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999. Under sections 43 and 44 of the Constitution, the right of the individual to own movable and immovable property is guaranteed by the Constitution. As a corollary to this guarantee, these properties cannot be acquired by the Government without the payment of compensation. The issue that has been discussed very frequently is whether the guarantees protect the sale of shares. This depends on whether the shares are movable property under the Constitution. It has been argued that since shares are choses in action they are not strictly so called movable property. They are special specie; consequently they are not protected under the Constitution. If this argument prevails it means that if a NEW Government which does not share the philosophy of the recent Governments ascends to power, it can reacquire the shares which it had disposed off through privatisation without any obligation to pay compensation for the share. At present the position of the Constitution should not create any serious alarm because, Under the Nigeria Investment Promotion Commission Act, Decree No. 16 1995 (the law enacted to encourage inflow of investments in Nigeria) the Government of Nigeria guarantees expressly that no compulsory acquisition of enterprises and interests shall take place in Nigeria. This clearly includes chooses in action. Foreign Exchange (Monitoring and Miscellaneous Provisions) Decree 1995 A major factor which provided a catalyst for the privatization process was the need to attract foreign investment. The commanding height of the economy theory had failed to attract investments. The oil boom had disappeared and it was necessary to augment national revenue through foreign investment. The laws governing the allocation of foreign exchange had to be adapted in such a manner as to make it very attractive to the foreign investor. Consistent with this spirit of liberalization and privatization of the economy the rules

Governments and Intergovernmental Relationship

Each state consists of a state government as well as local governments. In order for a state to be a well-oiled machine the two must work together to insure it is running well. In some instances the State will mandate rules and regulations that govern the whole state such as the drinking age or State highway speed limits. Other times local cities will determine what is best for their city. You might have county that is a dry county, and the county next to it allows drinking. One example of how all the local governments work together for the good of the State would be the issue on water.Water is a major issue for a lot of states that face major droughts throughout the summer months and even into the winter months. One such state that seems to have some type of drought issue every year is the great state of Colorado. Currently Colorado according to The U.S Drought Monitor have drought issues ranging from exceptional which is very high, to abnormally dry as being more normal, but still falling under drought guidelines.The Governor in 2011 called for the development of a statewide water plan for the whole state in the next five years. Many different agency in Colorado are working together to come up with a solution to the drought problem The Colorado River Cooperative Agreement was set up to bring together both the Denver Water, the West Slope and soon to follow the Northern Water Conservancy district to work together to insure the Colorado continues to have an ample amount of water.Now that the State has recognized that drought is an issue they want every city to get on board to find a solution to this problem.Part of the plan that the state has taken to combat the drought problem is to have each city monitor their lakes and rivers and put registrations on how many times a week people can water. This year certain cities had to put  restrictions on watering days as they did not thing they had enough water. Fort Collins, Colorado put a restriction in early spring that allowed only three days a week of watering. Shortly after that the restrictions were lifted, but some cities still have some type of restriction in place. They also left some restriction on town along the foothill so that more water was able to reach the Eastern slopes where much of the states agriculture is grown.The advantage of the state and local governments working together is that it benefits everyone in the state. It also takes the burden off the agriculture industry when they restrict homes from water so much and give more to the farmers. If the state and local governments did not work together we would all but see the decimation of the farms out east as well as some town in the south. Colorado has shown other states that if the many governments can work together as one, they can insure a better quality of life for their citizens.